Psych hypotheses essay

On Narcissism: Psychological Ideas and Restorative

Affluence in the Narcissistic Disorders

Launch

Understanding the Narcissistic Phenomenon

The so called narcissistic personality disorder is a sophisticated and often confusing

disorder. The capital feature from the narcissistic persona is the grandiose sense of self

importance, yet paradoxically underneath this grandiosity the narcissist suffers from a

forever fragile low self esteem. The grandiosity in the narcissist, nevertheless , is often so

pervasive that we usually dehumanize him or her. The narcissist conjures in us images of

the mythological character Narcissus who can only love himself, rebuffing anyone who

attempted to touch him. On the other hand, it is the underlying sense of inferiority which is

the true problem with the narcissist, the grandiosity is just a facade utilized to cover the deep

feelings of inadequacy.

The Makeup in the Narcissistic Persona

The narcissists grandiose actions are designed to reaffirm his or her impression of

adequacy. Because the narcissist can be incapable of asserting his or her own sense of adequacy

the narcissist seeks being admired simply by others. Nevertheless , the narcissists extremely sensitive

sense of home worth would not allow him or her to risk any kind of criticism. Therefore

important emotional communications with others are avoided. By together seeking

the love of others and keeping these people at a distance the narcissist is generally able to

maintain the impression of grandiosity no matter how people respond. Therefore, when people

praise the narcissist his / her grandiosity raises, but when criticized the

grandiosity will most likely remain unaffected because the narcissist will devalue the

criticizing person.

Akhtar (1989) while cited in Carson & Butcher, 1992, P. 271 discusses 6 areas of

pathological operating which characterize the narcissist. In particular, four of these

narcissistic personality traits finest illustrate the pattern mentioned above. (1) a narcissistic

person has a simple sense of inferiority, which underlies a preoccupation with fantasies

of spectacular achievement, (2) a narcissistic individual struggles to trust and rely on

others and so develops several, shallow relationships to remove tributes via others

(3) a narcissistic individual has a changing morality-always prepared to shift values to gain

favor, and (4) a narcissistic person is unable to stay in love, displaying an damaged

capacity for a determined relationship.

The Therapeutic Essence of Treating Narcissism

The narcissist who gets into therapy would not think that there are some things wrong with

her / him. Typically, the narcissist attempts therapy because he or she’s unable to

maintain the grandiosity which protects him or her through the feelings of despair. The

narcissist views their situation arising not as the result of a personal maladjustment

somewhat it is a few factor in the planet which is beyond the narcissists control

which has caused her or his present situation. Therefore , the narcissist desires the

therapist to never cure her or him from problems which he / she does not see to

exist, somewhat the narcissist expects the therapist to revive the protecting feeling of

grandiosity. Therefore, it is essential for the therapist being alert to the narcissists efforts

to steer remedy towards treatment the injured grandiose portion, rather than discovering

the underlying feelings of inferiority and despair.

Differential Psychological Landscapes of Narcissism

The use of the term narcissism regarding psychological trends was first made

by Ellis in 1898. Ellis described a unique state of auto-erotism because Narcissus like, in

which the sexual feelings become absorbed in self love (Goldberg, 1980). The

term was later integrated into Freuds psychoanalytic theory in 1914 in his essay On

Narcissism. Freud conceptualized narcissism as a being a sexual vicio involving a

pathological sexual like to ones very own body (Sandler & Person, 1991). Therefore

a lot of psychological ideas have attempted to explain and treat the narcissistic

phenomenon. Specifically, the most thorough psychological hypotheses have been

advanced by the psychodynamic perspective and to a smaller extent the Jungian

(analytical) point of view. Essentially, both theories refer to developmental challenges in

childhood as leading to the introduction of the narcissistic disorder. The existential

school has also attempted to cope with the narcissistic problem, even though the available

literature is significantly smaller. Existentialists postulate that society all together can be the

crucial factor in the development of narcissism. The final perspective to be discussed is

the humanistic approach which in turn although inadequate a specific theory on narcissism, can

nevertheless be used on the narcissistic disorder. In lots of ways the humanistic

method of narcissism echoes the sentiments of the psychodynamic procedure.

The Psychodynamic Perspective of Narcissism

The psychodynamic model of narcissism is focused by two overlapping educational institutions of

thought, the self psychology school and the object relations school. The self mindset

university, represented by Kohut, posits that narcissism is a element of everyones

psyche. All of us are born while narcissists and gradually our infantile narcissism matures in

a wholesome adult narcissism. A narcissistic disorder outcomes when this technique is somehow

disrupted. By contrast the object relations institution, represented by Kernberg, states that

narcissism will not result from the arrest in the normal growth of infantile

narcissism, rather a narcissism signifies a hinsicht in one of the developing periods

of child years. Specifically, the narcissist is definitely fixated in a developmental stage in which the

difference between the home and others is usually blurred.

Kohuts Theory of Narcissism

Kohut believes that narcissism can be described as normal developing milestone, as well as the healthy

person learns to transform his / her infantile narcissism into adult narcissism. This

change takes place through the process which Kohut terms transmuting

internalizations. As the infant is definitely transformed into a grown-up he or she will certainly invariably

encounter numerous challenges causing some stress. If this frustration is greater than the

coping abilities of the person just slightly the individual experiences maximum frustration.

Optimal aggravation leads anybody to develop a very good internal structure (i. e., a strong

sense of the self) which is used to compensate for the lack of exterior structure (i. e.

support coming from others). Inside the narcissist the transmuting internalizations is

arrested since the person encounters a level of frustration which will exceeds optimal

frustration. The narcissist thus is still stuck at the infantile level, displaying many of

you will of the allgewaltig and invulnerable child (Kohut, 1977).

Kernbergs Theory of Narcissism

Kernbergs views on narcissism are based on Mahlers theory of the separation-

individuation process in infancy and early years as a child. Mahlers model discusses how a

growing child gains a stable personal concept simply by successfully learning the two ideal

levels (normal autism and regular symbiosis) and the four subphases (differentiation

practicing, rapprochement, and consolidation) of separation-individuation. Kernberg

argues that the narcissist struggles to successfully expert the rapprochement subphase

and is as a result fixated only at that level. It is crucial, however , to know the characteristics of

the exercising subphase before proceeding to tackle the narcissists fixation at the

rapprochement subphase.

The practicing subphase (age 10 to 16 months) marks the developmental stage by

that this child understands to walk. The ability to walk gives the child a whole fresh

point of view of the world around him. The brand new ability endows the child with a sense of

grandiosity and toute-puissance which closely resemble the narcissists behavior. However

reality shortly catches program the child because the child goes in the rapprochement subphase

(age 14 to 24 months). At this stage the child discovers that she or he is not really omnipotent

that there are limitations to what he or she can do. Relating to Kernberg if the kid is

severely irritated at this stage they might adapt by simply re-fusing or perhaps returning to the

exercising subphase, which in turn affords him the security of grandiosity and omnipotence

(Kernberg, 1976).

The most well-liked Psychodynamic style

The Psychodynamic literature in general is likely to lean for the object contact

institution because of the emphasis it locations on a comprehensive developmental reason

(i. e. the application of Mahlers individuation-separation model). However, the theory of

Kohut has left a deep impression on Psychodynamic thinking as is evident by

using many of his concepts inside the literature (i. e. Manley, 1987, Manfield, 1992

and Masterson, 1981). For that reason in the rest of the Psychodynamic section a

comparable approach will be taken, simply by emphasizing object relations ideas with the

utilization of the sporadic Kohutian thought.

The Breakthrough of the Narcissistic Personality

According to Kernberg and the subject relations institution the turmoil of the

rapprochement subphase is critical for the development of the narcissistic character.

The individual who is struggling to successfully master the challenges of this level will

sustain a narcissistic damage. In essence the narcissistic damage will happen whenever the

environment (in particular significant others) needs the individual to be a thing

which he or she is not really. The narcissistically injured person is thus told Don’t be who have

you are, end up being who I would like you to be. Who you are disappoints me, intends me angers me

overstimulates me personally. Be what I want and I will love you (Johnson, 1987, P. 39).

The narcissistic injury devastates the persons emerging personal. Unable to always be what

he or she truly is the narcissistically injured person adapts by splitting his personality in

what Kohut terms the indivisible (real) self and the false self. The true self turns into

fragmented and overpowered, oppressed, whereas the false self takes over the. The narcissist

as a result learns to reject him self or very little by hiding what have been rejected simply by others.

Subsequently, the narcissist will attempt to compensate thus to their deficiencies by

planning to impress other folks through his or her grandiosity. The narcissist essentially decides

that There is a problem with me?nternet site am. Therefore , I must become special (Johnson

1987, P. 53).

The Narcissists View of Others

Just as the individual becomes narcissistic because that is the particular environment

needed her or him to be, and so does the narcissist view others not as they are really, but as what

he / she needs those to be. Others are hence perceived to exist just in relation to the

narcissists needs. The definition of object relationships thus assumes on a special meaning with the

narcissist. Were objects to him, and also to the level that we happen to be narcissistic, others

are objects to us. He doesnt seriously see and hear and feel who we are and, to the extent

that we are narcissistic, we do not really see and hear and feel the the case presence more.

They, we, happen to be objects I actually am not real. You’re not real. You are an thing to me. We am

an object to you personally (Johnson, 1987, P. 48). It is evident than the fact that narcissist preserves

the infantile false impression of being merged to the target. At a psychological level he or she

experiences difficulties in differentiating the self from other folks. It is the level of this

inability to distinguish personal limitations which determines the seriousness of the

narcissistic disorder (Johnson, 1987).

Levels of Narcissism

The most severe form of narcissism involves the perception that no separating exists

between the do it yourself and the object. The object is viewed as an extension in the self, in the

impression that the narcissist considers others to be a merged part of him / her. Usually, the

objects which the narcissist chooses to merge with represent that aspect of the narcissists

personality regarding which thoughts of inferiority are recognized. For instance if the narcissist

feels unappealing he or she can seek to combine with somebody who is recognized by the

narcissist to get attractive. At a slightly higher level exists the narcissist who also

acknowledges the separateness of the object, however , the narcissist sights the object because

similar to himself or perhaps herself or in other words that they discuss a similar emotional makeup.

In effect the narcissist interprets the object as just like me. The most advanced

narcissistic personality perceives the object to become both independent and mentally

diverse, but is not able to appreciate the object as a unique and separate person. The

object is therefore perceived as useful only to the extent of its ability to aggrandize the false

self (Manfield, 1992).

Types of narcissism

Pending the perceived needs in the environment a narcissist can develop in one of two

directions. The person whose environment supports her or his grandiosity, and

demands that he or she be than conceivable will develop to become an exhibitionistic

narcissist. Such an individual is told you are superior to others, nevertheless at the same time

his or her personal feelings are ignored. Thus, to restore his / her feelings of adequacy

the developing individual attempt to force the environment in supporting their

special claims of superiority and perfection. On the other hand, if the environment

seems threatened by individuals grandiosity it will attempt to suppress the

by expressing this grandiosity. Such an individual discovers to keep the grandiosity

hidden from others, and can develop to become closet narcissist. The storage room narcissist will

therefore only uncover his or her feelings of grandiosity when he or she is convinced that such

revelations will probably be safe (Manfield, 1992)

Narcissistic Defense Mechanisms

Narcissistic defenses exist to some degree in all of the people, tend to be especially

pervasive in narcissists. These defenses prefer protect the narcissist coming from

experiencing the feelings of the narcissistic personal injury. The most pervasive defense

mechanism is the grandiose protection. Its function is to reestablish the narcissists

overpriced perception of himself or herself. Typically the defense can be utilized once someone

punctures the narcissists grandiosity by stating something which disrupts the

narcissists overpriced view of himself or herself. The narcissist will likely then experience a

narcissistic injury similar to that knowledgeable in childhood and will react by expanding

his / her grandiosity, thus restoring her or his wounded do it yourself concept. Devaluation is

another prevalent defense which is used in identical situations. When ever injured or

disappointed the narcissist can act in response by reduction of value in the problem person. Accounting allowance

thus restores the wounded ego by providing the narcissist using a feeling of superiority

within the offender. You will find two additional defense mechanisms which the narcissist uses.

The self-sufficiency protection is used to hold the narcissist emotionally isolated from

others. By keeping himself or herself psychologically isolated the narcissists grandiosity

can continue to exist unchallenged. Finally, the manic defense is applied when thoughts

of worthlessness set out to surface. To avoid experiencing these types of feelings the narcissist

will attempt to occupy himself or himself with various actions, so that individual no

time kept to feel the thoughts (Manfield, 1992).

Psychodynamic Remedying of the Narcissist

The central theme inside the Psychodynamic remedying of the narcissist revolves around

the transference relationship which usually emerges during treatment. In order for the

transference romantic relationship to develop the therapist should be emphatic in understanding the

patients narcissistic needs. Simply by echoing the narcissist the therapist continues to be silent and

unseen to the narcissist. In essence the therapist turns into a mirror to the narcissist to

the extent that the narcissist comes narcissistic delight from dealing with his or her

alter ego. Grunbergers views are particularly helpful in clarifying this thought. According

to him The patient will need to enjoy full narcissistic liberty in the sense that he

should always be the only active get together. The analyst has no true existence of his personal in

relation to the analysand. He doesnt have to be either very good or bad-he doesnt have even

to get Analysis is definitely thus not only a dialogue in any way, at best it is just a monologue for two voices

one speaking and the additional echoing, repeating, clarifying, interpretation correctly-a dedicated

and untarnished reflect (Grunberger, lates 1970s, P. 49).

The Mirror Transference

Once the restorative relationship is established two transference like trends, the

mirror transference and the idealizing transference, jointly known as selfobject

transference emerge. The mirror transference will happen when the therapist provides a

strong sense of acceptance to the narcissist. Recall the fact that narcissistically hurt child

failed to obtain validation so that he or she was. The child as a result concluded that there may be

something wrong with his or her thoughts, resulting in a severe damage to the childs self-

esteem. By simply reflecting returning to the narcissist his or her accomplishments and grandeur the

narcissists self esteem and inner cohesion happen to be maintained (Manfield, 1992).

There are three types in the mirror transference phenomenon, each corresponding to a

different level of narcissism (as discussed previously). The merger transference will

occur in all those narcissists who have are unable to separate the object as well as the self.

Such narcissists will see the specialist to be a online extension of themselves. The

narcissist will expect the therapist to be properly resonant to him or her, as though the

therapist can be an actual component to him or her. In the event the therapist ought to even slightly vary from

the narcissists needs or opinions, the narcissist will experience an agonizing breach inside the

natural selfobject function provided by the therapist. These kinds of patients will likely then likely think

betrayed by the specialist and will reply by pulling out themselves through the therapist

(Manfield, 1992).

In the second type of reflection transference, the twinship or alter-ego transference, the

narcissist perceives the specialist to be psychologically similar to himself or their self.

Conceptually the narcissist perceives the therapist and himself or herself to be twins

separate nevertheless alike. In the twinship transference for the selfobject cohesion to be

maintained, it is crucial for the narcissist to view the therapist as just like me

(Manfield, 1992).

The third kind of mirror transference is again termed the mirror transference. In this

instance the narcissist is only interested in the therapist to the extent the therapist may

reflect his or her grandiosity. In this transference relationship the function of the

specialist is to bolster the narcissists insecure do it yourself (Manfield, 1992).

The Idealizing Transference

The 2nd selfobject transference, the idealizing transference, consists of the

borrowing of strength in the object (the therapist) to take care of an internal sense of

cohesion. Simply by idealizing the therapist to whom the narcissist feels connected, the

narcissist by simply association also uplifts him self or their self. It is helpful to conceptualize the

idealizing narcissist because an infant who have draws power from the toute-puissance of the

caregiver. Therefore, in the idealizing transference the therapist signifies omnipotence and

therefore makes the narcissist feel protected. The idealization of the subject can become thus

essential to the narcissist that on many occasions he or she can choose to problem himself or perhaps

himself, rather than fault the specialist (Manfield, 1992).

The idealizing transference is a older form of transference than the mirror

transference because idealization requires a certain quantity of internal structure (i. e.

separateness in the therapist). Quite often, the narcissist will first develop a reflect

transference, and only when ever his or her inside structure is definitely sufficiently strong will the

idealizing transference develop (Manfield, 1992).

Utilizing the Transference Relationship in Therapy

The selfobject transference associations provide a backing effect for the narcissist.

The supportive therapist thus enables the narcissist to treat his or her current low personal

esteem and reinstate the ruined grandiosity. Nevertheless , healing the current narcissistic

injury would not address the underlying preliminary injury specifically the issue of the false

self. To cope with these issues the therapist must skillfully use the situations

when the narcissist becomes uncharacteristically emotional, that is when the narcissist

seems injured. This thus turns into crucial that within the framework of the transference

relationship, the specialist shift the narcissists concentrate towards his / her inner emotions

(Manfield, 1992).

The prevailing judgment amongst Psychodynamic theorists is that the best way to

address the narcissists present encounter, is to utilize a hands-off form of approach.

This can be achieved by letting the narcissist manage the periods

digesting the narcissists injuries because they inevitably take place during the course of

treatment. If a mirror transference develops injuries will happen when the therapist

improperly understands and/or reflects the narcissists activities. Similarly, when an

idealizing transference is created injuries will require the form of some letdown with

the therapist which then disrupts the narcissists idealization from the therapist. In

either case, the narcissist is trying to cover the injury so that the therapist is not going to

recognize it. It remains to the therapist to realize the particular body

the fact that narcissist uses to defend resistant to the pain from the injury, and work in reverse

from there to have the cause of the injury (Manfield, 1992).

Once the source of the personal injury is discovered the therapist must carefully explore the

problem with the narcissist, such that the sufferer does not feel threatened. The next

case provides a very good example of the patience and skill which the therapist need to possess in

coping with narcissistic patient. a female individual in her mid-thirties arrived to a

session sense elated about having obtained a new work. All the lady could discuss is how

ideal this work was, there was no hint of introspection or of any dysphoric affect. The

specialist could find no opening to make no intervention the entire session except to

accept the sufferers obvious pleasure about her new job. Then, as the patient

was giving, the specialist noticed that she had remaining her spectacles on the table. This individual said

you forgot your spectacles, to which the girl responded with an expression of surprise and

shame saying, Also, how clumsy of me personally. This response presented the therapist

with a small seem in the grandiose armour and provided the opportunity to get him to

get involved. He left a comment, You are incredibly excited about the things that are going on to

you that is all you have been able to think about, in the process you seem to have

neglected a part of yourself. The patient smiled with a combination of amusement

and reputation. In this case in point the patient can be defending over the session in addition to a

moment of surprise she is embarrassed and labels himself clumsy, giving the specialist

the chance to interpret the defense (her focus on the excitement from the external

world) and just how it takes her away from himself (Manfield, 1992, PP. 168-169).

The cure of the narcissist than does not come from the selfobject transference

relationships by itself. Rather, the selfobject transference function in the therapist is usually

healing only to the extent that this provides an exterior source of support which allows

the narcissist to keep his or her inner cohesion. To get the narcissist to be treated, it is

necessary for her / him to create their particular structure (the true self). The healing process

is thus prolonged, and arises in tiny increments whenever the structure supplied by the

therapist is accidentally interrupted. From this context it really is useful to recall Kohuts strategy

of optimal aggravation. If the disruptions to the counselors selfobject function are not

so serious as to overwhelm the individuals deficient inner structure, that they function as

optimal worries, and lead to the sufferers development of his own inner structure

to make up for the disrupted selfobject function (Manfield, 1992, P. 167).

The Jungian (Analytical) Point of view of Narcissism

Analytical mindset views narcissism as a disorder of Self-estrangement, which

arises away of inadequate maternal treatment. However , ahead of tackling narcissism it is useful

to grasp the importance of synthetic thought.

The Ego as well as the Self in Analytical Psychology

It is important to know that the Home in synthetic psychology assumes on a different

meaning than in psychodynamic thought (Self is thus made a fortune in analytical writings to

identify it in the psychodynamic concept of the self). In psychodynamic theory the

self is always spirit oriented, this provides the self is definitely taken to be a content in the ego. By

distinction, in conditional psychology the Self is the totality in the psyche, is it doesn’t archetype

of wholeness and the managing center of personality. Furthermore, the Home is also the

image of God in the psyche, and as such it is experienced as a transpersonal power which in turn

goes beyond the spirit. The Do it yourself therefore is available before the spirit, and the ego subsequently

emerges in the Self (Monte, 1991).

Within the Self all of us perceive each of our collective subconscious, which is consisting of

primordial images, which were common to every members with the human race from your

commencing of lifestyle. These déterminant images happen to be termed archetypes, and enjoy a significant

role inside the shaping with the ego. Therefore , When the ego looks into the mirror in the

Self, what it perceives is always impractical because it perceives its archetypal image that may

by no means be fit into the spirit (Schwartz-Salant, 1982, P. 19).

Narcissism as an Expression of Self-Estrangement

In the case of the narcissist, it’s the shattering of the archetypal image of the mom

leading to the narcissistic manifestation. The primordial image of the mother

symbolizes paradise, for the extent that the environment in the child is definitely perfectly designed

to fulfill his or her requires. No mom, however , can realistically match the childs

archetypal expectations. Nevertheless, providing the mom reasonably satisfies the

childs requirements he or she will establish normally. It is just when the mom fails to be considered a

sufficient mother, that the narcissistic condition will take place (Asper, 1993).

When the mother-child relationship is usually damaged the childs spirit does not develop in an

optimal way. Rather than type a protected ego-Self axis bond, the childs spirit experiences

estrangement through the Self. This kind of Self-estrangement in a negative way affects the childs spirit

and therefore the narcissist is said to experience a negativized spirit. The negativized ego than

proceeds to compensate pertaining to the Self-estrangement by curbing the personal demands

which can be inherent inside the Self, therefore the negativized ego of the narcissistically

disturbed person is characterized by strong immunity process and ego rigidity. A

person with this kind of disturbance offers distanced him self from the unpleasant emotions of negative

experiences and has become egoistic, egocentric, and narcissistic (Asper, 1993, G. 82).

Analytical Treatment of Narcissism

Since the narcissistic condition is known as a manifestation of Self-estrangement, the analytical

therapist endeavors to treat the break in the ego-Self axis connection, which was created by the

lack of good enough mothering. To heal this kind of rupture the therapist need to convey to the

narcissist through fervent means that others do care about him or her, this provides the

therapist must fix the archetype of the very good mother by using a maternally qualified

way (Asper, 1993).

A maternal approach involves taking note of the narcissists needs. Just like a

mother may intuitively feeling her m?mes needs and so must the therapist look and observe what

is usually not verbally expressed by the narcissist. This kind of a maternal approach enables the

narcissist to experience more compassion towards their true thoughts and thus

gradually the necessity to withdraw in to the narcissistic security disappears (Asper, 1993).

The Existential Perspective of Narcissism

Existentialists perceive narcissism to be a byproduct of an impressive society. It truly is

hard for the individual to truly end up being himself or herself mainly because society provides many

rewards intended for the individual whom conforms to its rules. Such an specific becomes

alienated because he or she feels that societys rituals and demands scholarhip him or her small

significance and options in the control of his or her individual destiny. To compensate such an

individual will take pleasure in the or her own uniqueness (grandiosity), he or she enjoys

what others cannot see and control. Thus, the alienated person sees him self as a puppet

cued by social circumstances which usually exact ritualized performances from charlie. His

irritation regarding the inevitability of this can be counterbalanced by one significant consolation.

This includes his narcissistic affection to get his very own machinery-that is definitely, his own processes

and parts (Johnson, 1977, P. 141).

Existential Remedying of Narcissism

The existential take care of the narcissist is based on the existential tenant that all

existing folks have the will need and probability of going out using their centeredness to

take part in other beings (Monte, 1991, P. 492). The seriously alienated narcissistic

individual, however , does not believe in the validity of experience outside the personal.

Unlike others, the narcissist would not believe that a constructive marriage with other folks

may be possible. Existentialists therefore believe that the therapist, through emphatic

understanding, need to create a good bond while using narcissist, so that he or she can notice that

others have emotions too (Johnson, 1977).

The Humanistic (Client-Centered) Point of view of Narcissism

Thus far, not any specific preparations have been advanced by humanistic theorists about

the etiology from the narcissistic condition. Nevertheless, by using general humanistic

guidelines it is possible to clarify narcissism. Essentially, much like the psychodynamic

description, humanistic psychology would believe narcissism benefits when persons

aren’t allowed to truly be who they are.

According to humanistic theory, humans provide an innate requirement for self actualization.

We wish to be the very best person that we could possibly be. This is accomplished by

internalizing the behaviors that fit with the individuals personal self principle (that which in turn

the person finds to be appealing). However the self is usually subject to pressure from

significant other folks. Significant other folks place upon the individual, circumstances of really worth

upon which their appreciate and authorization is dependent. These kinds of conditions could possibly not

consonant with the people personal home. If they contrast dramatically with the personal

personal, and the individual does not want to risk loosing an approval or appreciate of significant

others, then that each will react in ways maladaptive to his or her self

actualization requirements.

Even though humanistic theory does not elaborate about the specificity of these maladaptive

actions, it is possible to speculate that narcissism is one particular possible outcome.

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